IJSP is an International, Peer Reviewed/ Refereed, Indexed, Open Access, Online Journal of Arts and Social Sciences. 10 Golden Years of the regular Publication Call for Paper : IJSP invites Research articles, View Papers, Short Communications, Book Reviews etc for Vol 11(02):2024 Timeline for Vol 11(02):2024 Proposed Publication Date (Online): 31 July 2024, (Print): 15 August 2024 Last Date of Submission: 31 May 2024

The Export Control Regime of Biological Weapons

Monalisa Joshi

Affiliations:

Ph.D.School of International Studies, Jawahar Lal Nehru University, New Delhi, INDIA

Download

Constituting the global biological weapons control regimes are various international instruments and a range of policies. These include policies like export controls, technology denial, biosafety and biosecurity, national and international prohibitions. This paper describes the existing international export controls of agents, materials, equipment, and technology related to biological weapons. The central conclusion is that export control of biological weapons, in place of being an appropriate response to the advances in biological sciences, has been a function of security perceptions of states.

Keywords:
Arms, Armament, Disarmament, Biological Weapons

2006 Report: Medicines in Development” and “2004 Survey: Medicines in Development,” Pharmaceutical Research and Manufacturers of America, Washington DC in Elizabeth Turpen, Achieving Nonproliferation Goals: Moving from Denial to Technology Governance, June 2009, http://stanleyfoundation.org/publications/pab/TurpenPAB609.pdf, p. 3 , 22 December 2010
After the war: intelligence; Iraq arms report now the subject of a CIA Review, James Risen, 4 June 2003, http://www.nytimes.com/2003/06/04/world/after-the-war-intelligence-iraq-arms-report-now-the-subject-of-a-cia-review.html?src=pm , 12 January 2011
Annex 3, Bases of Quantitative Estimates, Health Aspects of Chemical and Biological Weapons, Report of a WHO Group of Consultants (1970), Geneva: World Health Organization, p. 84
Australia Group, Control List of Dual-use Biological Equipment and Related Technology and Software, as downloaded from their website: http://www.australiagroup.net
Australia Group, Objectives of the Group as downloaded from their website: http://www.australiagroup.net
Bailey, Kathleen C. ( 1991) Doomsday Weapons in the Hands of Many, Illinois: University of Illinois Press, p. 82-95
Blacker and Duffy, eds. (1984) , International Arms Control Issues and Agreements, California: Stanford University Press, p. 95
Christopher Chyba, A Greninger (2004), “Biotechnology and Bioterrorism: An Unprecedented World”, Survival, 2004 , 46:143-162, in Mark D' Agostinoand Greg Martin, “The bioscience revolution & the biological weapons threat: levers & interventions”, Globalization and Health 2009, 5:3, http://www.globalizationandhealth.com/content/5/1/3#B5, 8 January 2011
Cohen Sidel, et al, (2001) “Good Intentions and the Road to Bioterrorism Preparedness”, American Journal of Public Health, Vol. 91, No. 5, 2001, p. 718
Committee on Advances in Technology and the Prevention of Their Application to Next Generation Biowarfare Threats, An International Perspective on Advancing Technologies and Strategies for Managing Dual-Use Risks: Report of a Workshop, Washington: National Research Council, 2005, http://www.nap.edu/catalog/11301.html , in Elizabeth Turpen, op. cit., p. 3
Cordesman, Anthony H. (2002) Terrorism, Asymmetric Warfare, and WMD, Defending the US Homeland, Westport, Connecticut: Praeger, p. 164
Dando, Malcolm R (2001) The New Biological Weapon, Threat Proliferation and Control, Boulder, Colorado: Lynne Runner Publishers, 2001, p. 33
Dando, Malcolm R.(2001) The New Biological Weapon: Threat Proliferation and Control, Boulder, Colorado: Lynne Rienner Publishers, p. 14
Definition of Terms, http://www.australiagroup.net/en/dual_biological.html
Ed Regis,(2002) “Evaluating the Threat”, www.sciam.com/regis.html, 21 January 2002
Edward M. Spiers, (2000) Weapons of Mass Destruction: Prospects for Proliferation, London: St. Martin, pp. 60-89
Farley, Philip J. (1988) "Arms Control and US-Soviet Security Co-operation", in George, Farley, and Dallin, eds., US-Soviet Security Co-operation: Achievement, Failures and Lessons, Oxford: Oxford University Press, p. 620-621
Feakes, Daniel (2002) “ Evaluating the CWC Verification System”, Disarmament Forum, 4, p. 11
Final Declaration of the Second Review Conference, BWC/CONF. 11/13
Garret, Laurie (2001) “The Nightmare of Bioterrorism”, Foreign Affairs, January/February 2001, p. 81
Globalization, Biosecurity and the Future of Life Sciences, The National Academis Press, Washington, 2006, http://www.nap.edu/openbook.php?record_id=11567&pg=R1, 11 January 2011
http://www.opbw.org/
http://www.wassenaar.org/guidelines/docs/Initial%20Elements%20-%202009.pdf
Isabelle Marie Chevrier and Amy E. Smithson, (1996) “Preventing the Spread of Arms : Chemical and Biological weapons” in Larren and Rattray, eds., Arms Control Toward the 21st Century, Boulder, Colorado: Lynne Rienner Publishers, 1996, p. 224
Isenberg, David (2002) “Quick Reference Guide to Biological Technology Equipment” CBW Discussion Forum, www.sipri.se, 25 October 2002
J Molas-Gallart and J P Perry Robinson, (2010) "An assessment of dual-use technologies in the context of European security and defence" Report for the Scientific and Technological Options Assessment (STOA) European Parliament, SPRU November 1997, p. 16, in C A McLeish, Reactions to Self-censorship 20th Pugwash Workshop Study Group on the Implementation of the CBW Conventions: The BWC Intersessional Process towards the Sixth Review Conference and Beyond, November 2003, http://www.pugwash.org/reports/cbw/cbw20/cbw20 McLeish.htm#_ftn13, 1 October 2010
Koblentz, Gregory (2003-04) “Pathogens as Weapons: The International Security Implications of Biological Warfare”, International Security, 28 (3), pp. 84–122
Kwik Gigi Gronvall, Joe Fitzgerald, Allison Chamberlain, Thomas V. Inglesby, and Tara O’Toole, “High- Containment Biodefense Research Laboratories: Meeting Report and Center Recommendations,” Biosecurity and Bioterrorism: Biodefense Strategy, Practice, and Science, Volume 5, Number 1, in Elizabeth Turpen, op. cit., p. 3
Larsen and Rattaray, eds (1990) Arms Control Towards the 21st Century, Boulder, Colorado: Lynne Rienner Publishers, 1990, p. 44
Littlewood, Jez (2010) “Building a Web of Prevention”, Lecture 21, http://www.slidefinder.net/l/lecture/9136498 , 29 November 2010
McLeish, Caitriona Paul Nightingale, (2007) Biosecurity, bioterrorism and the governance of science: The increasing convergence of Science and Security policy, Research Policy 36 (2007) 1635–1654, http://www.steps-centre.org/PDFs/biosecurityresearchpolicy_PN.pdf , 16 January 2011
Monterey Institute of International Studies, Center for Nonproliferation Studies’ Weapons of Mass Destruction (WMD) terrorism database, http://cns.miis.edu/db/wmdt/index.htm in Rebecca L. Frerichs et al.., “Historical Precedence and Technical requirements of Biological weapon Use: A Threat Assessment”, at http://www.biosecurity.sandia.gov/documents/historic-precedence2002.pdf, 20 January 2005
Petro, James B. Theodore R. Plasse, and Jack A. McNulty, (2003)"Biotechnology: Impact on Biological Warfare and Biodefense", Biosecurity and Bioterrorism: Biodefense Strategy, Practice and Science, Vol. 1, No. 3, 2003, p.161
Protocol for the Proliferation of the use in war of Asphyxiating, Poisonous or Other Gases, and of Bacteriological Methods of Warfare [“Geneva Protocol”] signed in Geneva, Switzerland, June 17, 1925
Roberts, Brad (1998) Export Controls and Biological Weapons: New Roles, New Challenges”, Critical Reviews in Microbiology, Vol. 24, No. 3, 1998, p. 239
Robinson, J P Perry (2008) “Difficulties Facing the Chemical Weapons Convention”, International Affairs, Vol. 84, No. 2, 2008, p. 223
Robinson, Julian Perry and Jozef Goldblat, May 1984 Chemical Warfare In The Iran-Iraq War 1980-1988 SIPRI (Stockholm International Peace Research Institute) Fact Sheet, http://www.iranchamber.com/history/articles/chemical_warfare_iran_iraq_war.php , 2 September 2010
http://www.australiagroup.net/en/origins.html
Russet, Bruce (1983) The prisoners of Insecurity, Nuclear Deterrence, The Arms Race and Arms Control, San Francisco: W. H. Freeman and Company p. 170
Schelling, Thomas C (1984) Choice and Consequence, Cambridge: Harvard University Press, p. 253
Semmel Andrew, (2011) “UN Security Council Resolution 1540: The U.S. Perspective,” United Nations Conference on Global Nonproliferation and Counterterrorism, pp. 29-32, UN Security Council Resolution 1540 PART I: Resolution 1810: Progress since 1540, http://www.wmdinsights.com/I26/I26_G4_UNSCR1540_1.htm , 28 January 2011
Sims, Nicholas A (1995) “The Diplomacy of Biological Disarmament; Vicissitude of a Treaty in Force”, 1975-85, New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1988, in Christian J Kessler, Verifying Nonproliferation Treaties: Obligation, Process and Sovereignty, Washington DC: National Defense University Press, p. 53.
Sims, Nicholas A. (1990) “The Second Review Conference on the Biological Weapons Convention”, in Susan Wright, ed., Preventing a Biological Arms Race, Cambridge: The MIT Press, p. 268
Smith, John E. (1996) Biotechnology, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, p. 2
Stern, Jessica (2002-03) “Dreaded Risks and the Control of Biological Weapons”, International Security, 27 (3), 2002/03, pp. 102-106
Susan Martin, (2001)“Role of Biological Weapons in International Politics: The Real Military Revolution”, Journal of Strategic Studies, Vol. 25, No. 1, 2001, p. 96
Tucker, Jonathan B. (1998) Strengthening the BWC: moving toward a Compliance Protocol”, Arms Control Today, January/February 1998, http://www.armscontrol.org/act/1998_01-02/tucker.asp , 12 June 2007
UN Security Council Resolution 1540 PART I: Resolution 1810: Progress since 1540, http://www.wmdinsights.com/I26/I26_G4_UNSCR1540_1.htm , 28 January 2011
Wheelis, Mark (2002) “Biotechnology and Biochemical Weapons”, The Non proliferation Review, Spring 2002, p. 52
World Federation for Culture Collections, “WDCM Statistics”, http://wdcm.nig.ac.jp/statistics.html, 29 December 2010
Yasuhara, Yoko (1991) “The Myth of Free Trade: The Origins of COCOM 1945-1950”, The Japanese Journal of American Studies, No. 4, 1991, p. 127, http://wwwsoc.nii.ac.jp/jaas/periodicals/JJAS/PDF/1991/No.04-127.pdf , 12 October 2010